Aerobic conditions
Soil with porosity that enables air to move through it. These conditions are unfavourable to anaerobic organisms, the ones that cause most disease
Agroecology
The application of ecological concepts and principles in farming, working to balance the relationships between plants, animals, people and the environment
Agroforestry
The practice of incorporating tree cultivation and conservation as part of an agricultural operation. Agroforestry improves soil protection, carbon sequestration, soil moisture retention rates and biodiversity, and mitigates temperature fluctuations. In some contexts it can be used to increase income from simultaneous tree and crop production
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Anaerobic conditions
Soil which is compacted, waterlogged, or otherwise does not allow air through it. These conditions favour anaerobic organisms, the ones that cause most disease
Animal integration
A regenerative practice that mimics nature by adding livestock to farming. The animals can eat the cover crops used to protect the soil, while adding manure that improves soil health
Biochar
Charcoal produced from plant matter (burned under a limited oxygen supply) and used as a soil amendment that aids in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Source: The Language of Regenerative Agriculture—Terms You Should Know – Center for Regenerative Agriculture and Resilient Systems – Chico State (csuchico.edu)
Biodiversity
Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the diversity of life existing on three levels: genetic, species and ecosystem. Biodiversity includes variety in all forms of life, from bacteria and fungi to grasses, ferns, trees, insects and mammals. It encompasses the diversity found at all levels of organisation, from the genetic differences between individuals and populations (groups of related individuals) to the types of natural communities (groups of interacting species) found in a particular area. Biodiversity also includes the full range of natural processes on which life depends, such as nutrient cycling, carbon and nitrogen fixation, predation, symbiosis and natural succession
Source: Frontiers | Understanding the Role of Humic Acids on Crop Performance and Soil Health (frontiersin.org)
Biological control
The reduction of pest populations by natural enemies, typically involving active human input
Biosequestration
The capture and storage of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by biological processes
Source: The Language of Regenerative Agriculture—Terms You Should Know – Center for Regenerative Agriculture and Resilient Systems – Chico State (csuchico.edu)
Carbon capture
The process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by trees, grasses, and other plants through photosynthesis and stored as carbon in biomass (trunks, branches, foliage, and roots) and soils. For agricultural operations, increased carbon sequestration can be achieved through, for example, reduced tillage practices, complex crop rotations including fodder and green manure crops, agroforestry, reforestation, or the use of biomass-containing amendments
Source: Frontiers | Understanding the Role of Humic Acids on Crop Performance and Soil Health (frontiersin.org)
Carbon cycle
How carbon compounds are processed in the environment, typically involving carbon dioxide being incorporated into plants and some other organisms by photosynthesis and returned to the atmosphere through respiration, the decay of dead organisms and the burning of fossil fuels
Source: The Language of Regenerative Agriculture—Terms You Should Know – Center for Regenerative Agriculture and Resilient Systems – Chico State (csuchico.edu)
Carbon sequestration
Process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and held in plants, soils, geologic formations and waterways. Sequestering carbon in soil organic carbon has been suggested as one way to mitigate climate change
Source: The Language of Regenerative Agriculture—Terms You Should Know – Center for Regenerative Agriculture and Resilient Systems – Chico State (csuchico.edu)
Source: The Language of Regenerative Agriculture—Terms You Should Know – Center for Regenerative Agriculture and Resilient Systems – Chico State (csuchico.edu)
Carbon:Nitrogen ratio
24:1 is optimum ratio for soil microbes to stimulate release of nutrients. High ratios result in the microbes having to find additional nitrogen to balance out excess carbon, creating temporary nitrogen deficit
Cation exchange capacity
Soil clay minerals and organic matter tend to be negatively charged, thus attracting positively charged ions (cations) on their surfaces by electrostatic forces. The cations remain within the soil root zone and are not easily lost through leaching. They easily exchange with other cations in the soil solution. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the total negative charges within the soil that adsorb plant nutrient cations such as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and potassium (K+). As such, the CEC is a property of a soil that describes its capacity to supply nutrient cations to the soil solution for plant uptake
Source: Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation | UGA Cooperative Extension
Compost
Compost, when properly managed, results in high quality soil amendment. Adding compost can increase soil water retention capacity, helping farmers produce a good harvest even in years of low rainfall. Compost improves soil structure and stability, recycles nutrients, stabilises volatile nitrogen, converts waste into resources and suppresses soil-borne diseases. The composting process destroys weed seeds and pathogenic microorganisms, while beneficial microorganisms grow and multiply in large quantities
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Compost tea
A concentrated organic liquid fertiliser made by steeping biologically active compost in aerated water
Conservation buffers
Areas of land populated with various plants to help manage specific environmental issues
Conservation tillage
Methods of soil tillage that leave a minimum of 30% of crop residue on the soil surface
Source: Conservation Evidence Change tillage practices - Conservation Evidence
Cover crop
A crop planted primarily to avoid allowing the land to be bare. By keeping living roots in the soil, cover crops reduce soil erosion, increase water retention, improve soil health, increase biodiversity and more. In regenerative viticulture they are planted in between the row of vines
Crimping and rolling
Tractor-mounted tool designed to knock over and flatten cover crops, whilst damaging the stems so that they do not return to vertical. This leaves the plants vulnerable to desiccation and wilting
Cultivation
Disturbing the soil, the definition varies between regions. In the UK it means turning the soil over, whereas in the USA it means loosening the top few inches of the soil
Disking
Disking breaks up clods and surface crusts and is performed shallower than ploughing (10-15cm)
Drawdown
Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere declining - a goal for reversing climate change
Dry farming
Crop production without irrigation during a dry season, in a region that receives at least 50cm of annual rainfall, utilising the moisture stored in the soil during the rainy season. The definition of dry farmed vines is not fixed but they are generally not irrigated, but are sometimes watered once a year during the growing season when planted
Ecosystem services
The benefits humans gain from the natural environment and from properly functioning ecosystems (such as accessing clean drinking water or the natural pollination of crops)
Enzymatic activity
Soil enzymes increase the reaction rate at which plant residues decompose and release plant available nutrients. Sources include living and dead microbes, plant roots and residues and soil animals
Source: Soil Quality Physical Indicator Information Sheet Series (usda.gov)
Functional diversity
The value and range of functional roles that organisms play in a given ecosystem. Highly diverse and active soil organisms indicate good soil health. It tends to be measured using indices based on the number of species or the number of different groups that perform different functions with the ecosystem
Fungi to bacteria ratio (F:B ratio)
Ecologically important for carbon storage, soils with higher fungal to bacteria ratios are characterised by higher carbon use efficiencies. The two groups of beneficial soil fungi important for soil carbon sequestration are the decomposers – saprotrophic fungi – and the root associated – mycorrhizal fungi. Increases in plant abundance, plant diversity and organic fertility sources increase fungal biomass and F:B ratios
Source: https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/Rodale-Soil-Carbon-White-Paper_v8.pdf
Glomalin
Protein secreted by mycorrhizal fungi, largely responsible for creating persistent, stable soil aggregates that protect soil carbon from being lost as atmospheric carbon dioxide
Source: https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/Rodale-Soil-Carbon-White-Paper_v8.pdf
Harrowing
A conventional intense version of tilling where the soil is broken up using an implement with teeth/tines or upright discs (also the experience of reading a glossary of almost 100 agricultural terms!)
Hedgerows
Lines of shrubs or trees around farm fields that act as windbreaks and habitat for beneficial organisms
Humic substances
Remains of decomposed plant and animal materials. High quantities are present in the soil after incorporating crop residues. External sources are commercially produced from soils, coal, lignite and organic materials. Humic acids and fulvic acids are fractions of humic substances. They are capable of improving soil fertility and health within short time frames. They withstand degradation. HA is approx. 60% organic carbon
Insectary plants/insectaries
Plants that are grown to attract, feed and shelter insect parasites (parasitoids) and predators to enhance biological pest control
Source: IPM & Beneficial Insects - Insectary Plants - UCIPM (ucanr.edu)
Integrated pest management
Conventional threshold-based insecticide use that monitors pest populations and/or crop damage to schedule insecticide applications, but may not consider the action of natural enemies
Source: Conservation Evidence - Site
Invasive species
Invasive plants and animals that are not native to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental damage, or harm to human health. Invasive species may be plants, animals or other organisms (e.g., microbes). Human actions are the main means of introduction of invasive species
Keyline contour
Concept developed in Australia by the Yeoman family, incorporating the natural contours of the land to increase the fertility of the soil
Labile carbon
Soil organic carbon is made up of different types of organic materials with different chemical and physical properties. The labile fraction decomposes relatively rapidly (days to years) and is composed of pieces of plant debris, including fresh crop residues and roots (0.053-2mm), living organisms and remnants of dead organisms. Labile carbon is a readily available source of energy for soil organisms so greatly enhances nutrient cycling
Source: https://www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/labile-organic-carbon-nsw
Microbial biomass carbon (MBC)
A measure of the carbon contained within the living component of soil organic matter (i.e. bacteria and fungi). Its size is influenced by soil properties (pH, clay, availability of organic carbon)
Source: Microbial Biomass Carbon - NSW | Fact Sheets | soilquality.org.au
Microorganisms
Soil microorganisms are smaller than 0.1mm and broadly defined as a group of microscopic life forms that include bacteria, archaea, viruses and eukaryotes like fungi. They have a variety of beneficial roles, including nutrient cycling and mutualistic associations with plant roots (eg mycorrhizal fungi or rhizobia). However, some bacteria, fungi or soilborne viruses can cause crop disease
Mineralisable nutrients
Organic nutrients are found in plants and other living organisms. Inorganic or mineral nutrients are in a form available to plants to take up. Immobilisation or demineralisation is the conversion of inorganic compounds (e.g. nitrogen) to organic compounds by micro-organisms (e.g. incorporating it into cells) when organic matter decomposes, making it unavailable to plants
Source: Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains - Conservation Evidence
Minimum-till / reduced till / conservation tillage
A way of growing with reduced disturbance of the soil compared with conventional methods
Mob grazing / managed grazing / cell grazing
Grazing practices that attempt to improve land by imitating the natural activity of migratory herds that cluster tightly for protection. The livestock disturb the soil with their hooves while eating—naturally incorporating their manure— and then move on so the land is improved and less likely to be damaged
Mulch
Retaining crop residues as a mulch prevents erosion, inhibits weed growth, moderates soil temperatures, reduces soil water evaporation, provides organic matter that is cycled by earthworms, and protects soil from extreme weather events.
Source: https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/Rodale-Soil-Carbon-White-Paper_v8.pdf
Mycorrhizal fungi / arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
90% of plants live in symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. They are particularly important for soil carbon sequestration. They receive a significant portion of the plant belowground carbon as their only energy source, in return they provide up to 80% of a plant’s nitrogen and phosphorous. They also increase resilience from drought and stress through mediating soil physical structure
Source: https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/Rodale-Soil-Carbon-White-Paper_v8.pdf
Native species
Plants that are indigenous to a given region or ecosystem
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Nematodes
Microscopic worms that are grouped according to feeding habits and identifiable (under microscope) by their mouthparts: bacterial feeders, fungal feeders, omnivores, predators, plant feeders (parasites). They play an important role in soil nutrient cycling by feeding on microorganisms. High numbers are generally an indicator of good soil health. They can be good indicators of ecosystem health as they feed on a wide range of organisms and their community structure reflects the health of their environment, in particular the ratio of fungal feeding to bacterial feeding
No-till
A way of growing without disturbing the soil through ploughing or overturning it. No-tillage involves direct drilling of crops straight into the soil
Nutrient cycling
Every time an organism feeds, waste nutrients are excreted in a form that is more available to plants. Plant roots are hotspots for such feeding activity so plants can readily take up these nutrients leading to the production of more plant material, supplying new organic matter to the soil and completing recycling of nutrients. Predators (e.g. protists, nematodes, mites and springtails) are important to drive the release of nutrients and make them available for plant uptake. Soil fauna can account overall for 30–40% of net nitrogen released into plant-available forms. The remaining nutrient is released by microbes or the enzymes they produce
PLFA analysis
Phospholipid Fatty Acid Analysis is used to quantify total viable biomass and provide a general profile of the microbial community
Source: Phospholipid Fatty Acid Analysis {PLFA} | Microbial Insights (microbe.com)
Ploughing / plowing
A conventional intense version of tilling where the soil is overturned. Sometimes called mouldboard ploughing.
Protozoa
Single-celled organisms which can move around, feed on organic matter (carbon and nitrogen compounds) and often also photosynthesise. This means they can fix carbon into organic compounds, providing food sources for other organisms
Recalcitrant carbon
The component of soil organic matter that is resistant to microbial decomposition or protected by mineral soil particles. It may persist in soil for centuries to millennia
Source: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AGUFM.B11G..01K/abstract
Reduced inputs
Building soil health and leveraging other natural systems to help manage pests and reduce the reliance on pesticides or other chemicals
Regenerative agriculture
A system of farming principles that rehabilitates the entire ecosystem and enhances natural resources, rather than depleting them
Source: https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/Rodale-Soil-Carbon-White-Paper_v8.pdf
Rhizosphere
The zone of soil surrounding a plant root where the biology and chemistry of the soil are influenced by the root. It is about 1mm wide, with no distinct edge. It is an area of intense biological and chemical activity
Source: The rhizosphere (nsw.gov.au)
Riparian buffers
Vegetated zones near streams that serve as habitat, protect water quality and mitigate flooding
Riverine areas
Adjacent plant communities affected by the surface and subsurface hydrological characteristics of perennial or intermittent water bodies in motion and ponds (for example, rivers, streams, lakes or drainage routes). Riverine areas have one or both of the following characteristics: 1) vegetative species clearly different from adjacent areas, and 2) species similar to adjacent areas but exhibiting more vigorous or robust forms of growth. Riverine areas are often transition areas between wetlands and highlands
Shannon diversity index
A measure of how many different microbial species there are in a given soil sample and how many individuals are present in each species
Source: Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments - Conservation Evidence
Silvopasture
A practice that combines the use of trees and the grazing of domesticated animals in a way that benefits the soil and diversity of production
Slake test
Simple way to evaluate soil structure by demonstrating the stability of soil aggregates in water
Soft tillage
Minimum work of the soil, without tipping or inverting the soil and which does not work at a depth of more than 10 cm
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Soil / ground / vegetable cover
A ground cover is the maintenance of plants in place to reduce soil erosion and prevent desiccation of soil microbial communities as a result of soil exposure. The plant cover will suppress weeds, recycle nutrients back into the soil, increase the soil’s organic matter, sequester carbon in the soil, increase soil moisture and reduce erosion. Keeping plant cover alive all year round is ideal. Impossible for most annual production systems, it is viable in many viticultural contexts
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Soil aggregate stability
A measure of soil structure that examines how well soil aggregates resist degradation to water or wind erosion and other processes. Aggregates that fall apart too easily lead to soil erosion and infertility. Wet aggregate stability suggests how well a soil can resist raindrop impact and water erosion
Soil aggregates
Groups of soil particles that bind together more strongly than other soil particles. They provide small spaces that serve to both retain and exchange air and water. These spaces create areas of weakness through which plant roots can grow. Large aggregates retain the most nutrients
Soil biology
The different groups of soil organisms and their roles in nutrient cycling, stabilising soil structure, water infiltration and interactions with plant roots
Soil biota / microbiome / microbial community
Microorganisms (bacteria and fungi, for example) and microscopic and macroscopic animals (protozoa and nematodes, etc.) that live in healthy soil interacting in beneficial ways with each other, plant roots, and the environment
Soil carbon stocks
The carbon that is held within the soil. There is potential to increase soil carbon stocks through carbon sequestration
Source: BSSS_Science-Note_June-23_Soil-Carbon-Stocks_FINAL-DIGITAL_300623.pdf (soils.org.uk)
Soil erosion
The loss of topsoil to wind, rain and other forces
Source: Erosion 101: Everything You Need to Know About Soil Erosion (nrdc.org)
Soil food web
A common grouping of soil organisms according to what they eat (i.e. trophic groups). Trophic levels also reflect the flow of energy through the soil food web, as all organisms consume food to get the energy they need to grow and reproduce
Source: Dr. Elaine’s™ Soil Food Web School - Regenerating Soil - Regenerative Agriculture Courses
Soil health
Soil health, also known as soil quality, is defined as the continuous ability of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. Soil is not an inert culture medium, but is associated with billions of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes that form the basis of an elegant symbiotic ecosystem. Soil is an ecosystem that can be managed to provide nutrients for plant growth, absorb and retain rainwater for use during dry periods, filter and buffer potential pollutants from leaving our fields, serve as a base for agricultural activities, and provide habitat for soil microbes to flourish and diversify to keep the ecosystem functioning smoothly
Source: Microsoft Word - OK-eng-Norma viticultura regenerativa 2023 final
Soil microbial biomass
The quantity of microbes in a given amount of soil. Bacteria and fungi are typically measured in colonies (or colony forming units, CFU)
Source: Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments - Conservation Evidence
Soil microbial diversity
The diversity of soil microbes and the composition of the community can significantly alter the services that the ecosystem performs
Source: Soil microbial diversity at European scale: a first assessment (europa.eu)
Soil microbial respiration
The production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire (breaking down molecules to produce energy). It can be used as a measure of microbial activity
Source: Soil Respiration.pdf (usda.gov)
Soil Organic Carbon
SOC refers only to the carbon component of soil organic matter (SOM). It is easier to measure than SOM, therefore laboratories tend to measure SOC
Soil Organic Matter
All the living, or once-living, materials within, or added to, the soil. This includes roots developing during the growing season, incorporated residues, added manures. It enhances the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and is important for soil fertility and crop productivity. Increasing and maintaining it is a vital component of soil management
Source: Soil organic matter | AHDB
Soil penetration resistance
Measured by penetrometer in MPa, the soil’s ability to withstand penetration by water or roots. Often with low penetration resistance comes higher hydraulic conductivity, which is the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through pore spaces in the soil
Source: Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts - Conservation Evidence
Soil porosity
A measure of the volume of air in soil (an indicator of good soil structure which tends to occur in healthy soils)
Soil respiration
A measure of the CO2 released from soil. It is released as a result of decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) and plant litter by soil microbes and through plant roots and soil fauna. It is an important indicator of soil health because it measures the level of microbial activity and the content and decomposition of SOM
Source: Soil Respiration.pdf (usda.gov)
Swales
Broad, shallow linear vegetated channels which can store or convey surface water, reducing run off rates and volumes, and reduce pollutants
Synthetic
In relation to fertilisers, synthetic means that they are derived from synthesised chemicals of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Their production emits high levels of GHGs and their application leaves vines with a higher water requirement
Tillage
Disturbing the soil, the definition varies between regions. In the USA it means a deep form of cultivation
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
The ability of the soil to transmit water when a hydraulic (water) gradient is applied. Higher hydraulic conductivity is an indicator of a healthy soil
Water holding capacity
The ability of the soil to hold water. This is affected by soil aggregate stability and the amount of organic matter in the soil. One of the benefits of Regenerative Agriculture is improving the land’s ability to make use of the rainfall that occurs and eliminating topsoil degradation via water run-off
Water infiltration
The downward entry of water into the soil. Water infiltration rate is an indicator of the soil’s ability to allow water movement into and through the soil profile
Source: Soil Infiltration | Agronomic Crops Network (osu.edu)